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Networking 101

Harnessing the power of computer networking, seamless connectivity allows data to flow effortlessly between devices across local and wide area networks, guided by the structured OSI model. Understanding these fundamentals is key to unlocking the digital world’s potential.

Networking!!

Networking or computer networking is a conduit that connects one node to another (devices) in network information. Networking is all about connecting, designing, using, managing and operating a network. The information can be between two users or segments and be sent in a local area network (LAN) or in a wide area network (WAN) connectivity. Networking works segments include diverse zones like calls, messages, video streaming, or other Internet of things (IoT).

Network Types: Networking can be defined in various types on the basis of designing, layers in the OSI model, components etc. We describe on the basis of the Physical layer of the OSI Model and Designing.

On the basis of the Physical layer of the OSI Model:

Wired: The network requires a physical medium to travel to send the information from one device to another device. For example usage of ethernet cables in connecting computer devices to a common network in offices. This type of network is cost-effective, reliable, and durable.

Wireless: The network doesn’t require a physical medium, as it works on radio waves to make the information travel from one device to another. For example Wi-Fi. This type of network is mobile, fast, and scalable.

On the basis of the Designing component:

LAN: Local Area Network or LAN is a small area network where a group of devices is connected on a single, geographically limited Network. It can be wired (e.g. -switch) or wireless (e.g.- Access Points)

WAN: Wide Area Network or WAN is a wide or larger region network, where multiple LANs network are connected in the same network. It is not geographically limited like the LAN.

Network travels following the OSI 7-layer model or TCP/IP 4 layers model:

Open System Interconnection Model:

The open system interconnection model or OSI model is a network model which defines how actually information travels from one device node to another device node. The information travels via 7 layers, from one stage to another. The 7 layers are as follows:

Application layer>>Presentation layer>>Session layer>>Transport layer>>Network layer>>Data layer>>Physical layer

Application Layer: The application layer’s basic purpose is to provide a user interface for applications. This layer provides network services to the applications running on it. Protocol for this layer is SMTP, HTTP, and FTP.

Presentation Layer: The data from the application layer is extracted here and then sent to the next layer. The function of this layer is to translate, encrypt-decrypt and compress the data. Protocol used in this layer is HTML, XML, and JSON.

Session Layer: The function of this layer is to establish and maintenance of the session, authentication, security, and communication between two devices in half-duplex or full-duplex mode. Protocol used in this layer is RPC and SIP.

Transport Layer: Data of the transport layer is called segments. It is the layer responsible for taking services from the network layer and providing services to the application layer. It is actually responsible for the end-to-end transmission of data in the whole process. At this layer, the source and destination ports are decided. It makes connectionless (UDP) or connection-oriented (TCP) pathways depending on which is required. For example, UDP is used by DNS services while TCP is used for communication which requires acknowledgment like a query asked by the user. Protocol used in this layer is TCP, UDP, and SCTP

Network Layer: Transmission of data from one host to another which might or might be not in the same network zone. The data here are called packets. It put the source and destination IP address in the header. The function includes routing and logical addressing. For example Routers and advanced switches. Protocol used in this layer is IP, ICMP, and RIP

Data Link Layer: The layer’s responsibility is to transfer data from node to node using the Source and destination MAC address. The receiver’s MAC address is obtained by using a request process called as ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address”? and whoever will be the destination host will reply with an acknowledgment. The data packet here on this layer is called a Frame. The function of the layer includes framing, physical addressing, error, flow, and access control. Example: Switch, and Hub all are data link layer devices. Protocol used in this layer is PPP and HDLC.

Physical Layer: The lowest layer at receiving end and the upper layer for the sender’s end is the physical layer. It is a part of the hardware layer and its function is to create an actual physical connection between devices. The message here comes in form of bits and is transferred in form of bits only from one node to another node. The function of the layer includes bits synchronization and rate control, transmission mode, and physical topologies. For example Hub, modem, cables, repeaters, etc. Protocol used for this layer is Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and USB.

Different protocols followed at each layer:

LAYER

NAME

PROTOCOLS

Layer-7

APPLICATION

SMTP, HTTP, FTP

Layer-6

PRESENTATION

SSL, TLS

Layer-5

SESSION

NetBIOS, SAP

Layer-4

TRANSPORT

TCP, UDP

Layer-3

NETWORK

ICMP, ARP

Layer-2

DATA

PPP, FRAME RELAY, CABLE

Layer-1

PHYSICAL

ISDN, MACHINES, LAPTOP

Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model:

OSI MODEL

TCP/IP MODEL

OSI model has a clear distinction among the interfaces, services, and protocols.

TCP/IP hasn’t any clear distinguishing points between services, interfaces, and protocols.

To define routing standards and protocols OSI model uses the Network layer.

TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.

OSI model use two separate layers physical and data link to define the functionality of the bottom layers

TCP/IP uses only one layer (link) to define the functionality.

In the OSI model, only the transport layer is connection-oriented.

A layer of the TCP/IP model has a major advantage over OSI and it is both connection-oriented and connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and the physical are separate layers.

In TCP data link layer and physical layer are combined as a single host-to-network layer.

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes.

The Minimum TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes.

SUMMARY:

The OSI Model, TCP/IP model, and networking is a logical and conceptual fundamentals in the IT field. The model defines network communication as a process used by the systems in open to interconnection and communication with other systems. As we observed as well, In the OSI model, a layer should only be created where definite levels of abstraction are needed, otherwise, no such requirement is observed. OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network. Thus, for understanding and work in networking, one needs to work and understand the fundamentals of Networking

Wi-Fi: An Introduction

Wi-Fi seamlessly connects devices to the internet using radio frequencies, with 2.4GHz offering wider range and 5GHz delivering faster speeds—secured by cutting-edge protocols like WPA3 to ensure encrypted data

Wireless Fidelity or commonly known as Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that allows a system (computers, laptops, mobile phones etc.) to connect with the internet and to exchange information within a network. It provides internet service to a limited range depending upon the range covered by the routers.

How does Wi-Fi work?

On the technical side, the IEEE 802.11 standard explains the protocols that enable communications with current Wi-Fi-enabled wireless devices, which include wireless routers and wireless access points (APs). Wireless access points support different IEEE standards and these standards work on different bandwidths, and frequencies and support a different number of channels.

Access Points: The access point function is to connect the wireless devices to the wireless network and provide the service of the internet via using the bandwidth provided by the routers/switch. This creates the LAN, WAN AND WLAN network.

Routers: Devices provided to connect to the internet by the Internet Service Providers (ISPs).

Radio Frequency: Frequency which is used by WiFi networks, it consists of no physical interaction, it ranges from 20KHz to 300 GHz.

-Frequency (F): Number of beats that take place per second or no of times an event takes place in a unit of time i.e., F=1/T

Here F denotes the frequency

T denotes time

Frequency is measured in hertz.

WiFi basically works on 2.4 GHz and 5GHz radio bands (radio frequencies), these bands are divided further into multiple channels, these channels can be shared on a single network but at a single time, only one transmitter will be able to transmit on a channel.

Let’s understand the basic difference between 2.4 and 5 GHz radio bands.

2.4 GHz

5 GHz

-Most common frequency, thus crowded.

-New band, less crowded.

-More interference.

-Consist of 11 channels, out of which 3 (1,6,11) are non-overlapping ones.

-Less interference.

-Consist of 25 channels, out of which 23/24 are non-overlapping ones.

-Long range, normal speed, low frequency.Thus, frequency is inversely proportional to range.

-Small range, high speed, high frequency.

Antenna: Equipment which can transmit electrical waves to radio waves or vice versa to do the function of transmitting or receiving signals is called antenna. It works on the principle of a line of sight and ground waves philosophy.

The signal range of the antenna is measured in terms of power gain and thus has units measured in Decibels.

The waves can travel from a transmitter to a receiver or vice versa via three modes:-

Line of sight means in a straight line manner.
Ground waves mean moving with the earth’s curvature.
Via Ionosphere, means will go up in the sky bounced back by the layer and reach to the aimed location.

Antenna types:- Basically antenna can be omnidirectional, unidirectional or semi-directional.

Wire: Common one, found in automobiles, aircraft, ships, buildings etc. They can be of monopole, dipole and loop types.
Aperture: A type of directional antenna, with an opening in the surface to emit radio waves. They can be slot types (used in microwaves) or horn antennas.
Rest they can be of grid type, parabolic or dish antenna, sector antenna etc.

Wifi Communication band name:

-802.11b: Oldest band, the maximum throughput of 11mbps over a short range, uses the 2.4GHz band.

-802.11a: High speed, a throughput of 54 Mbps, uses 5GHz band.

-802.11g: Successor of 802.11b, runs on 2.4GHz, supports up to 54mbps range.

-802.11n: Upgraded version, supports 2.4GHz with optional support of 5GHz band.

-802.11ac: Property of multiple data streams, increased transfer speed, uses 5GHz band, the throughput of 433mbps to 866mbps.

SSID (Service Set Identifier Device) :

1-32 character unique id or network name was given to a WLAN. The main purpose of SSID is to differentiate one WLAN from the other WLAN. For example, if company A employees want to connect to network WLAN A and Company B employees want to connect to network WLAN B, with the use of SSID, they will be able to identify and connect to the right network easily.

WiFi Security Protocols: Protocols to make the WiFi network secure.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP-1999): Earliest security protocol, 40-bit encryption key, not so secure and easily hackable.
WiFi Protected Access (WPA): Stronger encryption, using Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) which works on changing keys every time.
WiFi Protected Access 2 (WPA 2): Same as WPA with an advanced secured version WPA by using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).
WiFi Protected Access 3 (WPA 3-2018): Provides cutting-edge protocols to the market, it supports forward secrecy, meaning that any traffic that came across your network before an outsider gained access will remain encrypted, While with WPA2, decryption of old traffic can easily take place.

Security Protocols

ENCRYPTION

AUTHENTICATION

WPA Personal

TKIP

Personal security key (PSK-8-16 characters)

WPA2 Personal

AES-CCMP

PSK

WPA Enterprise

TKIP

802.1✖EAP (Extensible authentication protocol)

WPA2 Enterprise

AES-CCMP

802.1✖EAP

AUTHENTICATION SERVER: It is used to know whether the user who is trying to get into the network server is genuine or not via authentication like user data (Id and password). The Authenticator is an Access point which sends your request to the authentication server which later on asked for security details like Id and password.

Security Framework of AAA:

Step-1—Authentication: It means Who are you?- Credentials
Step-2—Authorization: It means what can you do or allow to do?- tasks, time period etc.
Step-3—Accounting: It means data of what you do? – how, when and what you are using.

Process of Security framework functioning:

Laptop/Device———–(User connects and ask for Id & Password)————–WAP———-(authentication request)———–Compares with database by RADIUS (Remote authentication dial-in user services)—————-Authentication acknowledgement—————-records in accounting database————-Approval given to a device

All About LINUX

Linux, born from Linus Torvalds’ vision in 1991, has revolutionized tech with its open-source nature, fueling everything from personal desktops to enterprise servers worldwide.

Linux is a group of open-source, like UNIX, operating systems. An operating system kernel was first released on September 17, in the year 1991, by Linus Torvalds and from there it got the name LINUX. Distributions of LINUX include the Linux kernel, supporting system software, and libraries (many of which are provided by the GNU Project). Linux is a prominent example of free and open-source software collaboration. Popular Linux distributions include Debian, Fedora, and Ubuntu, while commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. The source code of the LINUX may be used, modified, and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms and conditions of its respective licenses, such as the General Public License (GNU).

LINUX HISTORY:

The Unix operating system was executed in the year 1969, at AT&T’s Bell Labs, in the United States by scientists Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.In 1984, AT&T and Bell labs get separated led to the freedom of the legal obligation that required free licensing. After this divest from AT&T, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product, where user modification in the UNIX got restricted.

In 1983, the ‘GNU Project’, started by Richard Stallman, with the aim of creating a “complete Unix-compatible software system” composed entirely of free software. Later on, in the year 1985, Stallman started the ‘Free Software Foundation.

In the year of 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Linus Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems. Torvalds wanted to call the invention “Freax”, which is just like a portmanteau of “free” and “x”, just like the open-source nature of LINUX. During the start of Linus’s work, some of the project’s makefiles had the name “Freax” for about half a year. Initially, he also considered the name “LINUX” only but dismissed it as too egotistical. Later on, Torvalds’ coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), also one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at that time, did not like the name “Freax” and changed it to the name “Linux” on the server.

User Interface:

CLI shells which are used in LINUX are totally text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output, not like GUI. The dominant shell used in Linux is called Bourne-Again Shell (bash), which was originally developed for the GNU project. The CLI is best for the automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very simple inter-process communication.

LINUX Advantages:

-Open-source.

-Secured.

-Simplified Updates for all installed software.

-Light weight i.e., takes less space.

-Multiuser and multitasking in nature.

-Multiple Distribution like Fedora, RedHat, etc.

Comparison Between LINUX and Windows:

LINUX

WINDOWS

The operating system is called Kernel here.

The operating system is known as the O.S.

name here.

Here, there is a root user (/).

Here it is Administrator (\).

Directories are made here.

In this folders are created.

Package word in place of software is used

Software is used.

File System Hierarchy in LINUX:

1. / (Root): The root directory of the entire file system hierarchy exists in it. Only the root user has the right to write under the root directory. /root is the root user’s home directory, which is not the same as “/”.

2. /bin: It contains all Command binaries for all users, e.g., cat, ls, cp. Contains binary executables Linux commands that need to be used, located under this directory.

3. /boot: It is Boot loader files, e.g., kernels, initrd.

4. /dev : Essential device files stored here, e.g., /dev/null.

5. /etc: It has Host-specific system-wide configuration files. Contains configuration files required by all programs along with startup and shutdown shell scripts, which are used to start/stop individual programs. Example: /etc/resolv.conf, /etc/logrotate.conf.

6. /home: Users’ home directories, contains saved files, personal settings, etc.

Example: /home/Barkha, /home/BM

7. /lib : Libraries which are essential for the binaries in /bin/ and /sbin/.

8. /media: Temporary mount directory for removable devices such as CD-ROM. Examples: /media/floppy for floppy drives; /media/cd recorder for CD writer

9. /mnt: Temporarily mounted filesystems where sysadmins can mount filesystems.

10. /opt : Optional application software package which contains add-on applications from individual vendors.

11. /sbin : Like /bin, /sbin contains binary executables. Example: iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, swapon

12. /srv: Site-specific data is served by this system. Example, /srv/cvs contains CVS related data.

13. /tmp : Temporary files are stored in it. Files under this directory get deleted when the system is rebooted.

14. /usr : Secondary in the hierarchy system for read-only authority in the user data; contains the majority of (multi-)user utilities and applications as well. Contains binaries, libraries, documentation, and source code for second-level programs.

/usr/bin contains binary files for user programs. \

/usr/sbin contains binary files for system administrators.

/usr/lib contains libraries for /usr/bin and /usr/sbin

/usr/local contains user programs that you install from the source.

/usr/src holds the Linux kernel sources, header files, and documentation.

15. /proc : Virtual filesystem providing process and kernel information as files. In Linux, corresponds to a procfs mount.

This is a type of pseudo file system that contains information about the running process. For example the /proc/{pid} directory contains information about the process with that particular PID.

LINUX basic commands and their uses:

1. pwd (print working directory): To know the path of the current directory/folder you’re in. An example of the command is /home/username.

2. cd (change directory): To navigate through various directories, and files, you can use the cd command.

“cd ..” is used to move to the home directory.

“cd” to go straight to the home folder.

“cd.” to move to your previous directory.

3. ls (list): To view the contents of a directory you are in. For example, enter ls /home/username/Barkha to view the content of Barkha.

ls -R function is to list down all the files in the sub-directories as well.

ls -a function is to show the hidden files.

ls -al function is to list down the files and directories with detailed information like size, owner, etc.

4. cat (Concatenate): List down all the content in the file.

cat > filename function is to create a new file.

cat filename | tr a-z A-Z >output.txt to convert a file to upper case or vice versa.

5. cp (copy): The function is to copy the file from the current directory to another directory. For example, cp wallpapers.jpg /home/username/Photos would create a copy of wallpapers.jpg (from your current directory location) into the Photos directory.

6. mv (move): The function is to move files.For example: mv file.txt /home/username/Filefolder.

7. mkdir (make directory): Use mkdir command to make a new directory, if you will type mkdir Photos it will create a directory with the name Photos.

8. rmdir/rm -r (remove directory): To remove/delete an empty directory.

9. rm (remove): To delete a directory with its content altogether.

10. touch: It is used to create a blank new file.

11. locate: Just like the search command in windows, locate command is used to search/locate a file in Linux. The locate -i makes the command case sensitive in case you want to make it like one. Another such command to search in Linux is found, but it is different from locating command as the former one is used to search within a directory while the latter one is used to search in any directory.

12. grep: Search a particular text/word in a particular/all files. For example:grep barkha Cancerian.txt , will search for the word ‘barkha’ in the file.

13. sudo (super user do): This command is used to perform actions like a root user that is why you need to take permission from the root user to use the command.

14. df (disk free) : Used to know the space in the disk and one can type df -m to know the space value in megabytes.

du (disk usage) :To know how much space a particular file or a directory is taking. One can add du -h tp know the value in mega or kilobytes.

15. head: It is used to view the first line of any text file. For example, if you want to show the first five lines only, type head -n 5 filename.ext.

tail: It is used to view the last line of any text file. For example, if you only want to show the last 10 lines, type tail -n filename.ext.

16. Diff (difference): This command is used to compare the content of two files line by line to give output to those lines that do not match.

17. tar (tape archive): A common platform just like a zip file in windows, it is used to archive multiple files together.

18. chmod (change mode): It is used to change the read, write, and execute permissions of different files and directories.

19. chown: It is used to change or transfer the ownership of a file to a specific username.

20. kill: To terminate an unresponsive programme.

21. ping: To check the connectivity status of the user to a server.

22. wget: To download files from the internet. For example: simply type wget followed by the download link.

23. history: To know the history of the command you have entered.

24. man: To know the function of any command, like typing man cat will let you know the use of the cat command.

25. zip & unzip: The zip command is used to compress your files into a zip archive format, while the unzip command is used to extract the zipped files from a zip archive.

26.hostname: To know the name of your host, you can type hostname and you will get the information. Typing hostname -I will display the IP address of your network.

27. useradd and userdel: The command useradd is used to create a new user, while passwd will set up a new password for the particular user account. In the same manner, to remove a user account, just type userdel User Name and the account will be deleted.

-The clear command is used to clean out the terminal.

-The TAB button to auto fill whatever you are typing in the command section.

-Command Ctrl+C is used to stop and terminate the command, while Command Ctrl+Z will simply pause the command.

-If you accidentally freeze your terminal by using Ctrl+S, simply undo this by using the unfreeze command Ctrl+Q. Ctrl+A moves you to the beginning of the line, while Ctrl+E moves you to the end.

-If you want to run multiple commands in one single command usage, you can do it by using the “;” to separate them. For example Command1; Command2; Command3.

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

AI is revolutionizing our world by mimicking human behavior and thinking, raising critical questions about its potential to replace jobs and transform society.

Hey, Siri! Please call Martin. After that, a bell will ring to get Martin’s attention, or you can ask Alexa to play “Grow as We Go” from Spotify. The following sound will be the song playing, or you can inquire with ChatGPT about “codes for framing an email in JavaScript.” Hola! The codes will be displayed on the screen.

In our lives, not just in technical aspects, but in various ways, we are influenced by the new world technology known as ‘Artificial Intelligence.’ So, what exactly is artificial intelligence? Is it a machine that mimics the human brain’s functioning, or is it a machine that imitates human behavior? Could it be that human intelligence has been integrated into a machine to enable it to function like a human? Furthermore, how does this artificial intelligence impact human work? Is it replacing humans, leading to the eventual elimination of human job opportunities? Or is it simply a revolution similar to others that have occurred in the past?

AI has been defined in various ways by businessmen, technical experts, computer intelligence enthusiasts, and scientists. Keynes (1930) referred to it as “technological unemployment,” where the use of labor-saving techniques surpasses the rate of finding new uses for labor, leading to unemployment. Leontief (1983) expressed concerns about machines replacing humans, akin to how internal combustion engines rendered horses obsolete due to the dramatic improvements in computer chip processing power. Elon Musk holds a strong belief that “AI is a fundamental risk to the existence of human civilization.” On the other hand, Luger and Stubblefield (1993) define AI as “the discipline of computer science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior.” The different perspectives on AI highlight its potential impact on the workforce, human civilization, and the development of intelligent systems in computer science.

AI is simply artificial means man-made and intelligence is thinking power, thus, artificial intelligence is man-made thinking power. AI can be described simply as imbuing machines with human-like abilities such as reasoning, learning, planning, and creativity to perform various tasks. These capabilities can manifest in both hardware (embedded AI) and software (virtual assistants). While AI can think and act like a human brain, it still requires human intelligence to be integrated into the machine for it to function as desired. Currently, human intervention remains necessary to support AI’s functioning. Although AI has the potential to operate independently in the future, we cannot claim that it has completely replaced humans at this moment. Perhaps, in time, we may witness a shift where AI becomes self-sufficient, but that is not the case for now. Indeed, AI is pervasive worldwide, and its presence has become a part of our daily lives, whether directly or indirectly. The market showcases cutting-edge AI-related technologies such as Virtual Assistants like Apple’s Siri, Amazon’s Alexa, Cortana, and many others.

AI offers numerous benefits, including automation, which streamlines processes and reduces human error. It eliminates repetitive tasks, ensuring increased efficiency. With AI’s infinite availability, tasks can be performed consistently without downtime. AI’s speed and accuracy are remarkable, enabling swift and precise operations. Additionally, AI accelerates research and development, driving innovation across various fields. AI finds applications in diverse areas, such as voice recognition, image recognition, predictive modeling, translation, data analytics, and cybersecurity. These applications demonstrate AI’s versatility and its potential to enhance various aspects of our lives.

In broad categories, Artificial Intelligence can be classified into two types: Hardware-based AI, which involves robots, embedded AI, drones, etc., and Software-based AI, which includes virtual assistants, speech and facial recognition technologies.

On the basis of functionalities, AI can be further divided into two main types: Type 1 includes Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI), Artificial General Intelligence (AGI), and Artificial Superintelligence (ASI). Type 2 comprises Reactive Machines, Limited Memory, Theory of Mind, and Self Awareness.

Type – 1:

Artificial Narrow Intelligence: Narrow functioning, also known as Weak AI, involves AI systems that excel in specific areas or tasks, such as Machine Learning. Apple’s Siri is an example of Weak AI, as it operates effectively within a particular domain or zone.

Artificial General Intelligence: This advanced form of AI surpasses ANI (Artificial Narrow Intelligence) by incorporating intelligence and Machine Learning together. It is referred to as Strong AI due to its cognitive capabilities, similar to the human brain.

Artificial Super Intelligence: This AI goes beyond the capabilities of the human brain, making it a strong and currently highly speculative concept in the realm of AI. The practical implementation of such advanced AI in real-world scenarios would undoubtedly present formidable challenges.

Type – 2:

Reactive Machines: Reactive machines operate based on pre-programmed theories and do not store or learn any data. Consequently, each query is treated as a new one every time it occurs. IBM’s Deep Blue system serves as an example of reactive machines.

Limited Memory: This type of AI possesses a memory system to learn and retain information, but its memory is limited to a specific period. It can memorize things, but only for a constrained duration or limited time period. Self-driving cars are a notable example of this kind of AI.

Theory of Mind: This is still a concept that lies in the future. It involves comprehending human emotions and the underlying reasons for corresponding reactions. This form of intelligence pertains to understanding human emotions and predicting behavior accordingly.

Self-Awareness: Similar to the theory of mind, this AI also remains non-existent at present. It represents an advanced iteration of the theory of mind, where we envision a machine possessing human-like cognitive abilities, emotions, reactions, and functions. Essentially, it would be a self-aware machine, functioning at a superhuman level, akin to a sentient being.

It’s not ‘Fishing’, it’s “Phishing”!

In today’s digital world, the trending threat isn’t “fishing”—it’s “phishing,” where fraudsters bait victims with deceptive emails to steal sensitive data.

There was a time when fishing was in trend but it’s the new digital world of new India and here the trending hashtag nowadays is not fishing it is phishing. Yes, you see it written, the homophones type these words are too way different. The only similarity between these two is the process of capturing the fish in the former and the customer for fraud in the latter one.

WHAT IS PHISHING?

Phishing is a new type of cyber-attack often called a social engineering attack, commonly used to steal users’ data, like login credentials and credit card numbers. It occurs when an attacker, pretends to be a trusted entity to the customer and dupes a victim by making the individual open things like email, instant message, or text message which looks like valid ones but in reality, it would be consists of fraud data. Once the recipient gets tricked into clicking a malicious link, then the installation of malware starts, or the freezing of the system as part of a ransomware attack or the revealing of sensitive information, etc.

TECHNIQUES OF PHISHING

1) Spear Phishing:-

In this, the fraud individual targets a specific person or enterprise or some high authority level individual or company, as opposed to random application users. It’s a more in-depth version of phishing as it requires special knowledge about that particular organization, including its power, structure, and also confidential matters.

An attack might play out as follows:

A. The fraud dealer does research and finds names of employees within an organization’s marketing department and gains access to the latest project invoices to look genuine.

B. Acting as the marketing director, the attacker emails a departmental project manager using a genuine subject line. The text, style, and included logo duplicate the organization’s standard email template and the email seems like the same one with the same pattern that you won’t be able to recognize in one go.

C. The link in the fraud email redirects you to a password-protected internal document, which is in actuality a spoofed version of a stolen invoice to misguide you.

D. The Person is then requested to log in to view the document. The attacker steals his credentials, gains full access to sensitive areas within the organization’s network, and does the spear phishing with you.

2) E-mail Phising

This phishing is based on a number of game things. An attacker sends out thousands of fraud messages to get the net significant information and sums of money, even if only a small percentage of the person falls for the scam.

Just like spear phishing here they again try to create the same spoofed email or texts to fraud you. In addition, attackers will usually try to push users into action by creating a sense of urgency and taking the victim into confidence of genuine.

The poor part is the links inside the messages resemble the legitimate counterparts, but also have a typically misspelled domain name or extra subdomains. Like https://www.bajajfinservmarkets.in/ and http://www.bajajfinservemarket.in/.

Similarities between these two addresses offer the impression of a secure link, making the recipient less aware that an attack is taking place and the next click it happens

HOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF FROM THIS SOCIAL ENGINEERING ATTACK!.

Phishing attack protection requires steps to be taken by both users and enterprises to stay away from this attack.

For users, vigilance and awareness is the key. A spoofed message often contains mistakes that expose its true identity and these are easily catchable. All you need is to see it in patience and with awareness. These can include spelling mistakes or changes to domain names, as seen in the earlier URL example of email phishing. For enterprises, a number of steps can be taken to mitigate both phishing and spear phishing attacks:

· Two-factor authentication (2FA) is the most effective method for protecting from phishing attacks, as it adds an extra verification layer when logging in to sensitive applications. 2FA relies on users having two things: something they know, such as a password and user name, and something they have, such as their smartphones with their confidential information.

In addition to using 2FA, organizations or individuals should enforce strict password management policies. For example, employees should be required to frequently change their passwords and not be allowed to reuse a password for multiple applications or use different and not easy passwords to log in.
Educational campaigns and awareness campaigns can also help diminish the threat of phishing attacks by enforcing secure practices, such as not clicking on external email links and getting authenticated information from the genuine service provider, etc.

ICANN78: A Fellow Journey!

My journey as an ICANN fellow began just a few months back when I received that all-important email from our fellowship program manager, letting me know that I had been selected. But, here’s the twist – I didn’t actually check that email until the following day. I guess I was caught up in the busyness of life and didn’t realize what a significant moment it was.

Yes, before proceeding further, for those who don’t know what ICANN is? Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a non-profit, American-based organization that operates as a multi-stakeholder group. It is tasked with overseeing the management and protocols governing various databases associated with the naming and numbering systems on the Internet. Its primary mission is to guarantee the stable and secure functioning of the global network.

Returning to my account of this journey, once I had confirmed my participation, our fellowship manager quickly became my primary point of contact. This was particularly valuable for newcomers like me. They played a vital role in helping us navigate the intricacies of the ICANN Fellowship program, serving as a friendly and knowledgeable guide to steer us through this thrilling opportunity.

But that wasn’t the end of the adventure. Getting a Schengen visa, which allows you to travel within certain European countries, turned out to be a journey in itself. It involved a whirlwind of activities – gathering documents, going through verifications, handling passports, and taking care of all those visa-related requirements.

And let me tell you, it was no walk in the park. My first attempt at getting the visa didn’t go as planned. It was rejected, and the reason they gave was a bit perplexing – they said the “source of sustenance” was missing. I couldn’t help but wonder why the German government had turned down my application. After all, I was just going to be in their country for the duration of the fellowship, and I had everything I needed to support myself during that time.

So, my journey as an ICANN fellow has had its fair share of unexpected twists and turns. It’s been a lesson in patience, perseverance, and the importance of having a supportive fellowship manager to guide the way. And as I embark on this incredible opportunity, I can’t help but look forward to the adventures and discoveries that lie ahead. Who knows what other surprises were in store??

As a strong believer in God, I experienced a week filled with ups and downs. It was a week of rejection and acceptance and a pivotal moment that led me to discover an incredible opportunity. I had just been rejected, but in the same week, I was introduced to my mentor for a prestigious fellowship. Our very first Zoom meeting took place on that same day, and I decided to share my concerns with my mentor. To my amazement, he not only provided me with a solution but also offered guidance on how to ensure a successful second attempt. Miraculously, my visa application was approved.

Our mentor had a profound message for us: “ICANN is an ocean of opportunities. Your journey may not be easy, but the challenges you face will ultimately lead you to fruitful destinations.” This resonated deeply with me. Alongside seven fellow mentees, I embarked on a journey into the world of ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) and found myself in the At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC). Our mentor continued to guide us throughout this incredible journey.

During our mentorship, we had the privilege of e-meeting individuals who had dedicated a significant portion of their lives to ICANN, with 10 or even 20+ years of experience. It was an inspiring experience that emphasized the depth and vastness of the ICANN community. As October arrived, we entered into the month of our fellowship. The first week was dedicated to “Prep-week,” where we were introduced to various community stakeholders in face-to-face e-meetings. These meetings provided us with a comprehensive overview of the different communities and their functions within ICANN. Living in India, I faced the challenge of dealing with a significant time difference. After long days at the office, I would rush back home, grab a quick meal, and then dive into the prep-week activities. It required not only physical presence but also a sharp and focused mind. This was an opportunity that I could not afford to take for granted.

The last day of our prep-week was a remarkable one, as all the fellows, accompanied by our fellowship manager, had the opportunity to connect with a multitude of individuals representing diverse corners of the globe. It was a truly enlightening experience that greatly broadened our comprehension of the global ICANN community.

Then came the long-awaited D-day, October 21, 2023, at Hamburg’s CCH. We were all dressed up and heading to the venue for our very first day of the event. The initial two days were nothing short of overwhelming. We found ourselves amidst a sea of acronyms, and quite honestly, even now, it can be a bit bewildering, to make choices about which sessions to attend. Sometimes it feels like trying to remember all those acronyms would put our neurons under too much stress.

However, the turning point arrived on day three. It was a day of warm welcome by the Government of Germany. The experience was simply enchanting as we walked into a hall filled with vibrant colors and the smiles of attendees, both new and seasoned, with eyes filled with the sparkle of dreams. It was a momentous experience that will be cherished for a lifetime. Over the next two days, we engaged in sessions, interactive parties, DNS Woman gatherings, and much more. One of the most exceptional aspects of ICANN is the incredible networking opportunities it offers. No matter how introverted a person may be, spending time here for these six days will likely turn them into an extrovert. It’s not so much about you stepping out of your introverted shell; it’s the supportive and inclusive environment at ICANN that makes you feel so comfortable that engaging with people becomes a delightful experience, rather than something to be hesitant about.

You build friendships, find constant companionship, and gain knowledge. ICANN embraces the ethos of working diligently and celebrating heartily. I encountered a multitude of individuals during my time there, too numerous to mention here in one blog post. However, one principle remains paramount: trust the process of networking, immerse yourself in social interactions, and embrace the learning opportunities. As my journey within ICANN unfolds, I am brimming with excitement to discover where this path will ultimately take me. The trials and prospects on the horizon serve as a testament to the adage that what initially appears to be a challenging journey often leads to the most gratifying destinations.

For those individuals who are considering becoming a part of ICANN, you can explore the following URL: https://www.icann.org/fellowshipprogram. This website provides a concise and informative overview of the fellowship. As for others, you are welcome to reach out to me through this LinkedIn link: https://www.linkedin.com/in/barkha-manral/

Never think that you are done with fellowship now it is the end, No instead it is the beginning because ‘ONCE A FELLOW, ALWAYS A FELLOW’.